Haemodynamic Monitoring & Manipulation

The adequacy of the cardio respiratory system can generally be gauged from basic clinical signs such as heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate and depth, skin texture and colour, use of accessory muscles of respiration and mental status. These basic signs should never be ignored, but in critical illness, basic clinical assessment alone may be unreliable and misleading. Therefore further monitoring techniques are usually required. Cardiac output and the circulation can be manipulated by ?ui